Human Morality Essay

A common question throughout history has always been about human morality. Because of our higher thinking capacity, we are hardwired to adapt and refine our basic instincts to survive; therefore, it is obvious this question would be disputed throughout time. Are humans innately good, bad, or plainly neutral? The position that any one person takes may be derived from any number of ideas, be them philosophical thoughts or scientific inquiries. This essay asserts that morality is innate, and uses both scientific studies and ideas from philosophers to support this argument. Man is essentially good, and the different ways people are nurtured—from societal influences to parental influences—creates the large spectrum and variety of behavior that may not be deemed â€Å"good† or â€Å"moral.† The magazine Smithsonian published an article named â€Å"Born to Be Mild† in January of 2013 on morality in young children. This article wrote about a few different studies done on children by three different experimenters. In one of the studies titled â€Å"Spontaneous Altruism by Chimpanzees and Young Children,† Felix Warneken tested the morality of humans through young babies (because they have had little to no socialization) and also tested morality of chimpanzees, the closest relative to humans. In this study, 18-month-old toddlers were tested to see if they would help others in need by retrieving a dropped item that an adult struggled for. In almost all instances, the child returned the item. Warneken stated, â€Å"[Helping at that age] is not something that’s been trained, and [the children] come to help without prompting or without being rewarded† (Tucker 39). Not only did the toddlers help people in need, they also helped without social cues (such as the distress someone in need has). Many toddlers in the experiment Warneken created helped retrieve a can that had fallen off a table next to an adult and the adult failed to realize something was amiss. When Warneken tested the chimpanzees to see if they would return the same answers, he tested chimpanzees that were nursery-raised and semi-wild chimps. Both tests displayed the same results as the tests on the toddlers—chimpanzees were willing to help both humans and other chimps in need with no reward for themselves (Tucker 39-41). The fact that most of the toddlers and human relatives, the chimpanzees, helped others in need both with and without social cues strongly points to the idea that human morality is innate. A second study highlighted in the Smithsonian article was a reproduction of a previous study from the mid-2000s. The original study was an animated presentation shown to six to ten month old babies in one group and three month old babies in a second. The animated presentation consisted of a red circle attempted to climb a hill. In one instance, a triangle helped the circle climb, and in another, a square knocked the circle down. When the square and triangle were presented to the older group of babies, almost all babies chose the helping triangle over the hindering square. For the younger group, the researchers tracked the eye movement of the babies to either the triangle or square, because the babies could not physically grab the object. In the reproduction, done by another experimenter, the results were the same. Once again, evidence suggests that because babies seem so morally good, humans are innately good, and it is the nurture we receive as we are socialized into this culture th at may cause some people to seem morally corrupt (Tucker 38-39). It should be noted that because the reproduction provided the same results as the original study, an even stronger case was created for the idea of innate human morality. The messages that Machiavelli gives in â€Å"The Qualities of the Prince† may cause one to believe that humans are innately evil because through â€Å"The Qualities of the Prince,† Machiavelli details how to be cunning, take control, and maintain control as a ruler of a province. His teachings seem to create humans as greedy people, hungry for more. This is actually very incorrect. Machiavelli clearly states, â€Å"it is necessary for a prince†¦to learn how to not be good† (42). I emphasize that Machiavelli wrote a man must learn to not be good. One can assume from this that Machiavelli is saying man is at least in some degree, wholesome and moral. After all, humans were never meant to civilize and evolve. We are, in true form, animals that have an instinct to survive. Ruling and gaining power is a man-made idea. Opponents to the idea that humans are moral might suggest that if ruling is man-made, evil is already within us because we created the concept of ruling others; however, if man were truly evil, he would not take murder as a heavy offense, and would kill others in his way to get what he wants instead of just gaining control. The examples of rulers that Machiavelli writes help to reiterate this point. These men were not born thinking of war and control. They were raised and socialized to lead and gain power. Steinbeck and the messages he delivers in The Grapes of Wrath also point to the idea that human morality is innate. The author often writes of the distinct line of those with, and those without—in other words, the owners and the migrants or farmers. Steinbeck makes a point to write about how close-knit the migrants are in many instances. Steinbeck writes â€Å"‘I lost my land’ is changed†¦[to] ‘We lost our land.’,† ‘I have a little food’ plus ‘I have none’†¦.is ‘We have a little food’† (151); â€Å"the twenty families became one family† (193); and â€Å"when a baby dies a pile of silver coins grew at the door flap† (195). All of these quotes show the goodness in others, to do something for someone in need. This is all in contrast to the owners, which on multiple different pages Steinbeck writes how disconnected they are from the land, and â€Å"the quality of owning freezes you forever into ‘I’† (Steinbeck 152). These owners are so encompassed by the material culture around them, by the greed and the blanketed reality that they cannot see with a moral compass anymore. Of course they have one, for at one point they might have been like the farmers, caring for others and instituted into the â€Å"we† group. Proponents for human neutrality might argue that the owners were never at any point good, that they were neutral and socialized into the owning culture, unlike the farming culture. This is not the case, however, through a passage that Steinbeck wrote very early in The Grapes of Wrath, which said, â€Å"Some of the owner men were kind because they hated what they had to do, and some of them were angry because they hated to be cruel, and some of them were cold because they had long ago found that one could not be an owner unless one were cold† (31). This insinuates that in all types of owners, there is a moral compass. Even in the coldest owners, deep within them, they acknowledge the idea that the work they do is wrong. Because the owners know what is wrong, they know the opposite as well—what is right. If the owners were not innately good, their views on what is right or wrong would be skewed by their societal influences. While people will never give up the argument of human morality, it is a safe bet to argue that humans are innately good. We possess the ability to help spontaneously and without reward, as shown in the scientific studies, and we understand what is right and wrong. Our societal influences and the way we were raised affects if we will channel our morality or go against it, as shown by Machiavelli in â€Å"The Qualities of the Prince† and by Steinbeck in The Grapes of Wrath. Works Cited Machiavelli, Niccolo. â€Å"The Qualities of the Prince.† A World of Ideas. Ed. Lee Jacobus. 8th e. Boston: Bedford, 2010. Print. Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. New York: Penguin, 1939. Print. Tucker, Abigail. â€Å"Born to Be Mild.† Smithsonian Jan. 2013: 35-41, 76-77. Print.

Influence of Religion on African Culture

Africa is a continent of diversity. In this diversity there are hundreds of tribes and communities each practicing its own culture and religion. It would be very difficult to define Africa’s traditional religion as it would be difficult to define its culture.More so, it is extremely difficult to establish the dividing line between African Culture and African Religion. However, as much as there were many African Traditional Religions, their similarities were more dominant than their differences. We take up these similarities and encompass them as one African Traditional Religion. In this report, we explore the important aspects of Africa’s Traditional Religions and cultures that cut across the entire continent.This essay is based on various researches done by prominent scholars, historical background of Africa, news and books relevant to African studies. This report attempts to define religion, culture, and explores the major religions, African Traditional Religion (ATR) , Christianity and Islam and their influence and impact on African culture. Africa is one of the World’s six continents. It is the second largest and second most populous continent after Asia. Other continents include; Asia, America-North, America-South, Australia, Europe.Geologically, Present-day Africa, occupying one-fifth of Earth's land surface, is the central remnant of the ancient southern supercontinent called Gondwanaland, a landmass once made up of South America, Australia, Antarctica, India, and Africa. This massive supercontinent broke apart between 195 million and 135 million years ago, cleaved by the same geological forces that continue to transform Earth's crust today. At about 30. 2 million km? (11. 7 million sq  mi) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20. % of the total land area. With 1. 0 billion people (as of 2009) in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14. 72% of the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent has 54 sovereign states, including Madagascar, various island groups, and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a member state of the African Union whose statehood is disputed by Morocco.Afri was the name of several Semitic peoples who dwelt in North Africa near Carthage (in modern Tunisia). Their name is usually connected with Phoenician afar, â€Å"dust†, but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from a Berber word ifri or Ifran meaning â€Å"cave†, in reference to cave dwellers. Africa or Ifri or Afer is name of Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania (Berber Tribe of Yafran). Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterised by many different sorts of political organisation and rule.These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking people of central and southern Africa, heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa, the large Sahelian kingdoms, and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan, Yoruba and Igbo people (also misspelled as Ibo) in West Africa, and the Swahili coastal trading towns of East Africa.Religion originates from the Latin world religare (re: back, and ligare: to bind), and this brings up the world â€Å"being bound. † faith is usually the core element of religion. Faith encompasses â€Å"Value-center,† â€Å"trust,† â€Å"loyalty,† and â€Å"meaning†. It is difficult to define religion.A good definition of religion is one that expounds on the following key traits; Belief in something sacred (for example, gods or other supernatural beings), A distinction between sa cred and profane objects, Ritual acts focused on sacred objects, A moral code believed to have a sacred or supernatural basis, characteristically religious feelings (awe, sense of mystery, sense of guilt, adoration), which tend to be aroused in the presence of sacred objects and during the practice of ritual, prayer and other forms of communication with the supernatural, world view, or a general picture of the world as a whole and the place of the individual therein. This picture contains some specification of an over-all purpose or point of the world and an indication of how the individual fits into it, a more or less total organization of one’s life based on the world view, A social group bound together by the above. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning â€Å"to cultivate†) is a term that has various meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of â€Å"culture† in Culture: A Cri tical Review of Concepts and Definitions.However, the word â€Å"culture† is most commonly used in three basic senses: Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as culture, An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning and the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group. Culture has six core elements; politics, economics, ethics, aesthetics, kinship and religion. And out of these, religion â€Å"is by far the richest part of the African heritage. † It shapes their cultures, their social life, their politics, and their economics and is at the same time shaped by this same way of life. Some of the major religions that influenced African culture; African traditional religion, Christianity and Islam African Traditional ReligionIt is a unique religion whose sources include: sacred places and religio us objects such as rocks, hills, mountains, trees, caves and other holy places; rituals, ceremonies and festivals of the people; art and symbols; music and dance; proverbs, riddles, and wise sayings; and names of people and places. Beliefs cover topics such as God, spirits, birth, death, the hereafter, magic, and witchcraft. Religion, in the African indigenous context, permeates all departments of life. Africa’s traditional religion is based on the Ubuntu philosophy, which is a Zulu word for human-ness, and was developed over many centuries in traditional African culture. This culture was pre-literate, pre-scientific and pre-industrial. The concept of Ubuntu was originally expressed in the songs and stories, the customs and the institutions of the people. Another distinctive quality of the Ubuntu philosophy is the African emphasis on consensus.Indeed, the African traditional culture has, seemingly, an almost infinite capacity for the pursuit of consensus and reconciliation. D emocracy in the African way does not simply boil down to majority rule since it operates in the form of discussions geared towards a consensus. Christianity The Christian religion was founded in what is today Israel and Palestine 2000 years ago at the beginning of the Common Era. Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, a Jewish teacher and prophet. Early Christians (followers of Christ) believed that Jesus was divine in that he was the son of God. Islam Islam is a religion that was founded by Prophet Mohammed.It geographic origin can be traced to the modern-day Saudi Arabia. Influences of Religion on African Culture Religion being one of the core components of culture has a great influence on culture. Every religion practiced in Africa today has had a profound effect on the African culture, be it the African Traditional Religion, Christianity or Islam. Christianity Influence on African Culture arrived in Africa in two groups. One important group was centered in Egypt and had influence throughout North Africa. This group was known as the Gnostics. One of the other major factions of the early Christianity was centered in Rome. This faction was very much influenced by the teachings of the Apostle Paul.This faction became prominent in the fourth century C. E. when the Roman Empire officially became Christian. Recognizing the importance of a sacred text in solidifying their control over Christianity, the Roman faction brought together a collection of writings by early Christians and proclaimed these writings were inspired by God and that they were the true testament of the life and teachings of Jesus. This collection is known as the New Testament and is a central part of the Christian Bible. However, in creating the New Testament the Roman faction rejected as heresy all other writings about Jesus' life and teachings, including many books written by North African Gnostic ChristiansIn spite of the repression of the Gnostic Christians by Roman Christians, Christianity continued to flourish throughout North Africa until the arrival of Islam in the seventh century C. E. The Christians in this area were known as Coptic Christians, named after the main language of the area. By the time of the arrival of Islam, the Coptic Orthodox Church had lost most of the Gnostic influence, although the Coptic faith, like the Gnostics placed a great deal of emphasis on contemplation and monasticism. In structure, it was similar to the Church of Rome in that it practiced the same sacraments, and the church structure was made up of priests and bishops.Like the Roman Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church is headed by a Patriarch (similar to the Pope in the Roman Church) who lives in Alexandria. Even after Egypt had been taken over by Arab Moslems, the Coptic Christians continued to form a small but important segment of Egyptian society. Indeed, Coptic Christians today comprise approximately fifteen per cent of the Egyptian population. Christiani ty was introduced in Nubia by Christian monks and traders in the fifth and sixth centuries C. E. By the seventh century, the rulers of Nubia and most Nubians had converted to Christianity. In practice and structure, the Nubian church was similar to the Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt.In June, 18, 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull ‘Dum Diversas', granting King Alfonso V of Portugal the right to â€Å"attack, conquer, and subjugate Saracens, Pagans and other enemies of Christ wherever they may be found. † It gave title over all lands and possessions seized and permitted the Portuguese to take the inhabitants and consign them to perpetual slavery. Dum Diversas legitimised the colonial slave trade that begun around this time with the expeditions by Henry the Navigator to find a sea route to India, which were financed with African slaves. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex of 1455. The transatlantic trade in Africans was fo unded on Christianity.Religion was key in motivating Prince Henry of Portugal, later called Henry, â€Å"the Navigator† (1394-1460), to put in motion Europe's aggressive and ruthless expeditions to Africa. Henry was not only the governor of Algrave Province, who managed a large economic infrastructure based on the unbridled grasp of enormous wealth from trans-Saharan commerce, but he was also the administrator of the Order of Christ, the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar, a famous Western military order founded in the aftermath of the First Crusade at Clermont on November 27, 1095. As one of the best fighting units, the Soldiers of Christ prompted a series of striking maritime exploits, ensuring the safety of Europeans who made pilgrimages to Jerusalem.It is important to note that during this historical period, the feudal states of European countries were just beginning to unite and major religious wars were being fought between Christians and Muslims, especially th e Moors in Morocco. Henry trained men to sail from Portugal, down the west coast of Africa in search of the limits to the Muslim world, in order to halt the Islamization of West Africa and to accelerate the spread of Christianity. In order to further God's intentions for humankind, Ogbu Kalu contends that within the context of religious logic, papal bulls offered rights of patronage to Henry, authorizing him to appoint clerical orders for evangelization and to fend off competing European interests.According to Peter Russell, Henry the Navigator considered conversion and enslavement as interchangeable terms, experiencing no cognitive dissonance in using Christianity as a civilizing agent for making converts into slaves. In â€Å"Christianity: Missionaries in Africa,† Modupe Labode sums it up this way: The case of the Portuguese exemplifies the close relationship between Crown and Church. In the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the pope recognized Portuguese claims to Africa. The Crown was also responsible for attempting to convert the indigenous people to Christianity. Much of the missionary effort over the next two and half centuries was conducted under Portuguese authority. The vast majority of the missionaries at this time were Roman Catholic priests, many of them belonged to religious orders such as the Jesuits, Capuchins, and Franciscans.Influence of Islam on African Culture led to the spread of Islam, from its heartland in the Middle East and North Africa to India and Southeast Asia, revealed the power of the religion and its commercial and sometimes military attributes. The spread of Islam across much of the northern third of Africa produced profound effects on both those who converted and those who resisted the new faith. Islamization also served to link Muslim Africa even more closely to the outside world through trade, religion, and politics. Trade and long-distance commerce, in fact, was carried out in many parts of the continent and linked regio ns beyond the orbit of Muslim penetration.Until about 1450, however, Islam provided the major external contact between sub-Saharan Africa and the world. State building took place in many areas of the continent under a variety of conditions. West Africa, for example, experienced both the cultural influence of Islam and its own internal dynamic of state building and civilization developments that produced, in some places, great artistic accomplishments. The existence of stateless societies and their transformation into states are a constant of African history even beyond 1500. As we have seen with Egypt, North Africa was also linked across the Sahara to the rest of Africa in many ways.With the rise of Islam, those ties became even closer. Between A. D. 640 and 700 the followers of Muhammad swept across North Africa from Suez to the Pillars of Hercules on Morocco's Atlantic shore. By A. D. 670 Muslims ruled Tunisia, or Ifriqiya, what the Romans had called Africa. (The Arabs originally used this word as the name for eastern North Africa and Maghrib for lands to the West. ) By 711, Arab and Berber armies had crossed into Spain. In opposition to the states dominated by the Arabic rulers, the peoples of the desert, the Berbers, formed states of their own at places such as Fez in Morocco and at Sijilimasa, the old city of the trans-Saharan caravan trade.By the 11th century, under pressure from new Muslim invaders from the East, a great puritanical reformist movement, whose followers were called the Almoravids, grew among the desert Berbers of the western Sahara. Launched on the course of a jihad, a holy war waged to purify, spread, or protect the faith, the Almoravids moved southward against the African kingdoms of the savanna and westward into Spain. Islam offered a number of attractions within Africa. Its fundamental teaching that all Muslims are equal within the community of believers made the acceptance of conquerors and new rulers easier. The Islamic tradition of uniting the powers of the state and religion in the person of the ruler or caliph appealed to some African kings as a way of reinforcing their authority.The concept that all members of the ummah, or community of believers, were equal put the newly converted Berbers and later Africans on an equal footing with the Arabs, at least in law. Despite these egalitarian and somewhat utopian ideas within Islam, practice differed considerably at local levels. Social stratification remained important in Islamicized societies and ethnic distinctions also divided the believers. The Muslim concept of a ruler who united civil and religious authority reinforced traditional ideas of kingship. It is also important to note that in Africa, as elsewhere in the world, the formation of states heightened social differences and made these societies more hierarchical.Africans had been enslaved by others before, and Nubian (African) slaves had been known in the classical world, but with the Muslim conquests o f North Africa and commercial penetration to the south, slavery became a more widely diffused phenomenon, and a slave trade in Africans developed on a new scale. In theory, slavery was viewed by Muslims as a stage in the process of conversion – a way of preparing pagans to become Muslims – but in reality conversion did not guarantee freedom. Slaves in the Islamic world were used in a variety of occupations, such as domestic servants and laborers, but they were also used as soldiers and administrators who, having no local ties and affiliations, were considered to be dependent and thus trustworthy by their masters. Slaves were also used as eunuchs and concubines; thus the emphasis on women and children.The trade caravans from the Sahel across the Sahara often transported slaves as well as gold. Other slave-trade routes developed from the African interior to the east African coast. The tendency for the children of slave mothers to eventually be freed and integrated into M uslim society, while positive in one sense, also meant a constant demand for more slaves. Islam provided the residents of these towns a universal set of ethics and beliefs that made their maritime contacts easier; but in East Africa, as in the savanna kingdoms of West Africa, Islamization was slow to penetrate among the general population, and when it did, the result was often a compromise between indigenous ways and the new faith.By the thirteenth century, a string of urbanized trading ports sharing the common Bantu-based and Arabic-influenced Swahili language and other cultural traits – although governed by separate Muslim ruling families – had developed along the coast. Towns such as Mogadishu, Mombasa, Malindi, Kilwa, Pate, and Zanzibar eventually contained mosques, tombs, and palaces of cut stone and coral. Ivory, gold, iron, slaves, and exotic animals were exported from these ports in exchange for silks from Persia and porcelain from China for the ruling Muslim f amilies. African culture remained strong throughout the area. Swahili language was essentially a Bantu language into which a large number of Arabic words were incorporated, though many of them were not incorporated until the 16th century.The language was written in an Arabic script sometime prior to the 13th century; the ruling families could also converse in Arabic. Islam itself penetrated very little into the interior among the hunters, pastoralists, and farmers. Even the areas of the coast near the trading towns remained relatively unaffected. In the towns, the stone and coral buildings of the Muslim elite were surrounded by mud and thatch houses of the non-Muslim common people, so that Islamization was to some extent class-based. Still, a culture developed that fused Islamic and traditional elements. Family lineage, for example, was traced both through the maternal line, which controlled property (the traditioral African practice), and through the paternal line, as was the Musli m custom.The enduring legacy of the influence of religion on African culture led to majority of Africans profess either Christian or Islamic faith. Considering that there lie a thin veneer between culture and religion, it is imperative that these two religions have fundamentally altered the African culture, if there exist any. These religions spread into Africa aboard various vehicles, including; slavery, colonialism, trade, education, among others. These religions emphasized a ruler-ship founded on a hierarchy focused on one centre of power, the imperial dictatorship. This was contrary to African culture that was less hierarchical and more collegiate, that emphasized on dialogue and consensus. It is this imperialist hierarchical structure that still causes chaos in Africa today.To a large extend most Africans remain colonized, whether politically, economically, religiously, culturally, spiritually or otherwise. A society that is still colonized is not a free society, it is a societ y wallowing deeply in the swampy marshes of slavery. Africa, the mother of humanity, as it stands now is one whose veil of religion and garment of culture has been torn. It is a mother whose dignity has been raped, and its young children defiled by the older siblings who came back from their adventures abroad. One most fundamental question would be: Is colonialism and slavery a just price that Africans have to pay eternally for the reward of education and trade? Whichever way the answer comes to be, Africa needs restoration.Restoration is only possible if Africans can wake up to spiritual reality and eschew the bondage of foreign religion consumed by it from its renegade sons and daughters. The turning point can only be achieved if Africans realize that religion and spirituality are distinct – that spirituality possessed by a religious person can never be fresh and neither can religion exist in a pure spirituality. Africa must free itself from this intoxicating addiction to f oreign religion, and for that matter, any religion for it to be truly free. CONCLUSION. In conclusion, a keen oversee at history slowly shows us more cleary the influence of religion on African culture.The change due to the influence may not have taken place there and then but took time spreading its roots and slowly merging with the native culture and in some other instances completely eroding it. Just like how Christianity was introduced to Africa, the natives did not completely embrace it just like that, they took their precious time and in present day Africa, it is still being practiced and no one can pin point the exact time when Christianity was completely taken in by the natives of the past. These different religions which were introduced to African culture or way of life made other cultures to take a complete turnaround from their practices and events.

Stefan’s Diaries: Origins Chapter 33

Pale moonlight danced over Alice's bright hair as I rushed toward the shack. I ran my tongue over my still-sharp fangs, reliving the sensation of my teeth pressing into her pliant, yielding neck. â€Å"You're a monster,† a voice somewhere in my mind whispered. But in the cloak of darkness, with Alice's blood coursing through my veins, the words held no meaning and were accompanied by no sting of guilt. I burst into the shack. It was quiet, but the fire was well-tended and burned brightly. I watched the flames, momentarily entranced by the violets, blacks, blues, and even greens within. Then I heard a faint breath in the corner of the room. â€Å"Damon?† I called, my voice echoing so loudly against the rough-hewn beams that I winced. I was still in hunting mode. â€Å"Brother?† I made out a figure hunched under a blanket. I observed Damon from a distance, as if I were a stranger. His dark hair was matted to his neck, and he had streaks of grime along his face. His lips were chapped, his eyes bloodshot. The air around him smelled acrid–like death. â€Å"Get up!† I said roughly, dropping Alice to the ground. Her almost-lifeless body fell heavily. Her red hair was matted with blood, and her eyes were half closed. Blood pooled around the two neat holes where I'd bitten her. I licked my lips but forced myself to leave the rest of her for Damon. â€Å"What? What have you †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Damon's gaze shifted from Alice to me, then back to Alice. â€Å"Y ou fed?† he asked, shrinking even farther into the corner and covering his eyes with his hands, as if he could somehow erase the image. â€Å"I brought her for you. Damon, you need to drink,† I urged, kneeling down next to him. Damon shook his head. â€Å"No. No,† he rasped, his breath labored as he drew nearer to death. â€Å"Just put your lips to her neck. It's easy,† I coaxed. â€Å"I won't do it, brother. Take her away,† he said, leaning against the wall and closing his eyes. I shook my head, already feeling a gnawing hunger in my belly. â€Å"Damon, listen to me. Katherine is gone, but you're alive. Watch me. Watch how simple it is,† I said as I carefully found the original wound I had made on Alice's neck. I sunk my teeth back into the holes and drank. The blood was cold, but still it sated me. I looked up toward Damon, not bothering to wipe the blood away from my mouth. â€Å"Drink,† I urged, pulling Alice's body along the floor so it was lying next to Damon. I grabbed Damon's back and forced him toward her body. He started to fight, then stopped, his eyes transfixed on the wound. I smiled, knowing how badly he wanted it, how he could smell the overpowering scent of desire. â€Å"Don't fight it.† I pushed his back so that his lips were mere inches from the blood and held him there. I felt him take a deep breath, and I knew he was already regaining strength, just from seeing the red richness, the possibility of the blood. â€Å"It's just us now. Forever. Brothers. There will be other Katherines, forever, for eternity. We can take on the world as we are.† I stopped, following Damon's gaze toward Alice's neck. Then he lunged and took a long, deep drink.

Strategic management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Strategic management - Assignment Example In fact, through strategic management, businesses are capable of assessing their competitors in the market, setting attainable goals and strategies in order to meet their market demands and stay ahead of all the existing and potential competitors. Of importance to note is that in most occasions, strategic management is dependent of the size of an organization and its overall operations. Thus, scholars such as Rao, et al. (2008) argue that strategic framework ought to address fundamental issues that directly affect the development of an organization. Apparently, a good strategy has been described as one concept that is modest and easy to understand. In other words, Rumelt (2012) refers it to the strength that is mostly applied to any opportunities that present themselves in organizations. As such, any strategizing opportunity must comprise of ascertaining crucial issues that are present in the market and the organization in general. Moreover, these crucial points must be keenly focused to come up with results that are action oriented. In this regard, any good business strategy must have a specific action that aims at giving an ultimate solution based on a defined challenge. Of importance to note is that a good strategy is comprised of numerous analyses, and strong development of thoughts and implemented policies that reduce obstacles for the sole purpose of ensuring that the organization moves ahead in terms of maximizing its profit. In light of this, a good strategy is mainly focused on problem solving activity that handles basic issues and not specific ones through the use of intelligent individuals to achieve new and better heights. Contrary to numerous assumptions, a good strategy does not necessary deal with ambitious goals, vision, innovation, leadership or determination (Cunningham & Harney, 2012). Many business leaders have argued that

Life Span Human Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Life Span Human Development - Essay Example Moreover, according to the Government of Saskatchewan (1999) there is also a multi-dimensional component insofar as the theory holds that there is a biological, cognitive, socio-emotional and spiritual dimension. From this perspective one could argue that a person could develop into a number of different paths owing to a number of different lifelong conditions. Without question the interaction of hereditary factors and the environment interplay with each other to produce differences in human development. According to Sigelman & Rider (2009) it is the case that one’s genes are patterned throughout our entire lifespan. Whilst many people have commonalities in the way we age and develop physiologically there remains a profound difference in the way we may develop on an individual basis. Some people may be more tall or short or perhaps athletic or sickly. These factors play a major influence on our development. Moreover, people put into different environments may develop different ly. For example people in an abusive environment may develop differently than people in a more nurturing environment. From this perspective there are a number of separate internalities and externalities that help shape who we are over the course of our life. References Government of Saskatchewan (1999) The Lifespan Perspective on Human Development.

Explain the marketing concept and discuss what it means for an Essay

Explain the marketing concept and discuss what it means for an organisation to have a marketing orientation, using examples t - Essay Example Boone (2012) further denotes that coca cola used the social media, the print media, and the electronic media to advertise the products and services that it offers during this period of the world cup. By looking at this strategy of coca cola, we can denote that advertising is an important element of the principles of marketing. The main aim of carrying out an advertisement is to persuade the target market on the need of buying the products under consideration, and promoting the product under consideration. Russell (2012) denotes that for an organization to achieve success and efficiency in their marketing strategies, they must develop an advertisement that has the capability of persuading its target market on the need of buying into the products of the company. For example, an effective advertisement has to contain the name of the product, the usage of the product, and the value in which a customer will get by using the products under consideration (Kozmetsky, 2012). Companies such as Nokia, Samsung and Apples have developed an advertisement strategy that is always very effective in persuading their target markets on the importance of buying their products. This is by aligning the various technological needs of their target markets in their products, and communicating what they have done to their customers (Kozmetsky, 2012). Kotler and Armstrong (2012) believe that marketing concept involves developing policies products aimed at satisfying the various needs of the customer. In the current era, many business organizations in the world aim at achieving efficiency in the manner in which they meet their objectives. Kotler and Armstrong (2012) observe that the main objective of a business organization is to maximize profits, and increase their market share. To achieve this objective in an efficient manner, an organization must integrate all the four concepts of marketing, while developing a marketing strategy. These concepts are, product, price, promotion, and place. Under the principles of marketing concepts, Ramachandra and Chandrashekara (2010) believe that an organization will seek to improve on the quality of their products, and minimize costs for purposes producing products which are of high quality value, and affordable to the majority of its target market. By using these policies and concepts, the organization might manage to increase its market share, and its profitability. On this basis, the marketing principles of product and price come into place. Brenkert (2008) believe that the quality of an organizations product will determine whether it manages to satisfy the various needs of customers. This is because the notion of marketing concept involves developing products whose main aim is to satisfy the various needs of customers (Brenkert, 2008). If a product does not satisfy the various needs of customers, then chances are high that the company might fail to make sales (McDaniel and Gates, 2013). This might result to losses, and the ev entual closure of a business organization (Brenkert, 2008). The pricing of a product is also a very important aspect of marketing. The price of a product determines whether customers might afford the product under consideration, or fail to afford it. Ramachandra and Chandrashekara (2010) denotes that if the products of an organization are very expensive, and of high quality, then they will attract the most affluent

Professional Nursing Concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Professional Nursing Concepts - Essay Example The profession also entails the advocacy in the care of persons, families, and communities at large, in terms of healthcare services. Â  The nursing profession is one among the most important components of the medical world. This is because; it enables the training of highly qualified personnel who assist individuals to perform activities, which collectively help to improve the healthcare operations, enhance faster recovery of the patients, and facilitate peaceful death when one has to die. Furthermore, the nursing profession plays a pivotal role in nurturing healthcare practitioners who strive to ensure the best quality of lives possible among patients who suffer from diverse ailments or disabilities. The professionals in nursing have a wide range of medical knowledge with which they use to achieve their objectives, which are essential, to prevent illnesses and injuries as well as advocating in healthcare for the entire society. Â  The nursing practitioners, who are qualified and registered healthcare providers, perform medical operations to patients at all stages of human life, right from the new-borns to the elderly. The professionals in this medical field to perform a number of important functions including conducting a well-detailed and focused physical examination to patients; diagnosing and treating common and acute illnesses as well as injuries and providing the appropriate immunizations to the populations. In addition, the Nursing Practitioners have the responsibility to manage various human healthcare complications among them high blood pressure, diabetes, depression, and many other health problems that are chronic. (Basford and Slevin 67) Â  

Women in the World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Women in the World - Essay Example The paper also looks at the reasons for the different kinds of oppression faced by women. Basically, in every field where man and women interact, discrimination can be seen in one form or another. This paper tries to bring out the nature of oppression against women, not only in America, but also across the world and across the various religions. It also brings to attention the female oppression in the fields of politics, science and technology. The paper ends in a positive note hoping for the creation of a new horizon for women across the world. Keywords: Women, Discrimination: The fact that discrimination against women still exists in most countries across the globe, is a blemish to humanity. The discrimination â€Å"ranges from tacit male dominance in religion and philosophies to the brutal male oppression, for instance Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) that is still carried out in some communities†(Female Oppression 2008:1). ... After much struggle and strong opposition from the women community and other social organizations, the system of Apartheid is eliminated from Africa. But women in Africa still suffer cruel discrimination.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Poverty and illiteracy of Africa are other major reasons for the unequal treatment of women. South Africa reports the world’s highest number of rape cases, which is about half a million each year. Ironically, the actual number of rape incidents is much larger than the official reports. Even among the many reported cases, only a few receive justice from the court of law. According to a study done on the rape cases in Africa, about 69% of the 394 rape cases that were reported, only 17 cases fetched justice. This is really a pathetic situation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Genital mutilation in Africa is greater than any other continent in the world. The four type of Genital mutilation as per the WHO classifications are practiced in Africa. On the basis of a study about 60% of African women are circumcised. Africa is not only the part of the world where discrimination occurs on such a rampant scale. It is a surprising fact that discrimination against women occurs not only in underdeveloped countries, but also in developed countries like America.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even in the modern world of technology, the traditional roles of women and men are not still revolutionized. Men are still seen as the breadwinners and women as the homemakers. Even though career oriented women and domestic centered men are present in the modern world, the inequality in the opportunities that both the genders share is still great. There is a wide gap between the positions of men and women in the technically perfect

The Use of the GAP Model Approach Measuring Client Satisfaction Essay

The Use of the GAP Model Approach Measuring Client Satisfaction - Essay Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that customer satisfaction is an area that the management of different institutions takes a keen interest in. Quality service provision is a critical aspect that determines whether a company maintains relevance in the market or diminishes. At times, clients meet and talk concerning service provision in a particular institution. In their discussion, there are bound to arise certain issues about expectations towards service provision. In the event that their expectations fall below the expected level, a gap is then created. Breast cancer is one of the single most phenomena that have provided a new whole level of challenges in this modern dispensation. The dire consequences of this problem have made health practitioners get back to the drawing board and establish new ways and means of providing better services to the customers. This is relevant in so far as breast cancer is concerned. North County Breast Screening Unit provi des the services of screening the breast to ensure that no patient dies of the cancer disease. In the recent past, the number of people seeking services at the screening unit has increased significantly. The unit offers services to almost half a million people and in with an uptake of services from 70% to 77%. This is above the national quality grid of 75%. In a recent research done on the screen, its unit, the results told it is all about quality of service provision at the unit. A number of patients were interviewed a number of patients together with a selected number of employees. The results revealed some unique aspects that only need to be put into perspective for proper analysis. From the survey done at the North County Breast Screening Unit, some critical issues can be understood about service provision.

I will get back to you on this. If you come up with an idea let me Essay

I will get back to you on this. If you come up with an idea let me know - Essay Example The emphasis would be on identifying the causal factors causing depression and evaluating the role of each of them. The thesis statement of the paper is that there are genetic predispositions to depression among children of specific age groups as well as catalyzing factors like absence of a father figure, societal pressures to conform and peer-pressure from other children to perform at school. Hence, the paper attempts to answer the thesis question: Is Depression among children caused by genetic factors or environmental factors or a combination of both with catalyzing factors playing a major role. The problem description is that of children in the age groups of 2 to 6 and teenagers showing symptoms of adjustment to the world around them and hence can be classified as troubled or depressed. The point here is that the paper tries to address the â€Å"nature vs. nurture† question as it relates to depression among children. While many experts have pointed to the genetic predisposition that causes mental health disorders, there are others who have insisted that this is nothing more than â€Å"blaming the brain† as an excuse to not look deeply at the environmental factors that cause depression. The line taken in this paper is that while there are enough grounds for genetic factors being at the root of the issue of depression among children, there is enough evidence to indicate that environmental factors act as â€Å"catalysts† in precipitating depression. Hence, what is being argued in this paper is that while nature might predispose certain children towards psychological disturbances, the other factors like home and family environment and social norms do indeed catalyze the inherent tendency towards depression making the children the victims of depression and other psychological disorders. We all have good genes and bad genes and most of us get through life without

Macroeconomics Keynesian and Classical Model Essay

Macroeconomics Keynesian and Classical Model - Essay Example Given below is the diagram showing a horizontal aggregate supply curve in Keynesian Model. If there is a decrease in income, the reasons are assigned to decrease in government spending, increase in taxes or decrease in money supply and so on. The change in income leads to changes in a number of things out of which fall in demand is one of them. Aggregate demand depends on real money supply. The real money supply is the value of money provided by the central bank and the banking system. If we write the number of dollars in the money supply as M' and the price level as P, we can write the real money supply as M'/P. When M'/P falls, interest rates increase and therefore the investment falls, leading overall aggregate demand to fall as well. When there is a fall in demand we need less output to cater the market, this is another reason for fall in investment, and an increase in unemployment as well. This was a briefing of how things would change with a decrease in income. The below given diagram shows AD as the aggregate demand before the reduction in income with E as the equi librium. Once the demand decreases due to above-mentioned reasons another line AD' is formed showing the current level of demand at the given price level. ... Now consider how wages adjust when the demand for labor decreases and firms do not need any over times. In the short run when the demand decreases workers are being paid more as compared to the output produced. The employer would want to reduce the wage expense. Change in wages is a slow process hence the employer will have to look for an alternative like looking for those employees who would be willing to work at a lower wage. This would increase some of unemployment. The employer has to be very careful in setting the wage through negotiations with the employee to consider the morale of the employee. If there is an overall decrease in demand then hiring new labor force may not be difficult, but if only one employer's demand of output has decreased then the employer may have to pay higher wage in order to keep the employees attracted to their current job. The Keynesian theory believes that, the employment offered by firms depends on the demand for their output, workers would be unemployed if the output produced exceeds the demand of the products excessively. Which would mean too much of unnecessary labor force. As such, demand-deficient unemployment is not caused by labor insisting on a wage incompatible with full employment. Since that unemployment is not the fault of the workers, but is due to factors beyond their control, it may be termed 'involuntary unemployment'. Labor market is not depended on the rate of real wages but infact on the quantity of output required. Therefore wage does not have much to do with unemployment. When the aggregate expenditure equals to AD', the equilibrium level of income is established at Y', which happens to be lower than Yf (full employment). Referring to the production function diagram [sector (b)] we see

William Blake Essay Example for Free

William Blake Essay Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience appear to be quite simplistic on first reading. Explain how Blake uses imagery, form and language in these poems, and what their content reveals about the times in which they were written and Blakes beliefs In many of the poems from his Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience collections, William Blake writes, at first sight, somewhat simplistically and often in nursery rhymes about life in the 18th century. However, a disturbing picture of poverty, exploitation, hypocrisy and moral decay emerges from the stories of ordinary people and, in particular, children, some of which is hidden and only becomes apparent when we analyse Blakes imagery and language more closely. William Blake was born in London in 1757 to a poor family. He grew up without a formal education but later studied drawing at a school on the Strand. In the early 1770s, he became a student at the Royal Academy where he studied Arts and then was apprenticed to a famous engraver, James Basire. Even though his engravings were good, he was only moderately successful with his work. However, his English skills were amazing for an autodidact. Historically, he witnessed many different events such as the Industrial Revolution, French Revolution and American Independence, which in turn influenced him, his writing style and his radical Christian and political views. Indeed, this can be seen in his legacy, and he is constantly referring to the struggles of London and its people during the industrial revolution in his poems. The Industrial Revolution was the major shift of technological, socioeconomic and cultural conditions in the late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of and with machinery Blake was well aware of the changes around him and saw them as a change for the worse rather than the better. Child labour increased, the population increased, churches promoted the wrong ideals, and Blake was angry and frustrated. He wanted a different kind of change and could not get it, thus he begun working on his poems most of which have a hidden or subliminal message to them. His first set of poems were published in 1783, entitled Poetical Sketches and was seen by many as an immature set. His second volume of poems were then published in 1789 and were entitled Songs of Innocence. This set contains some of his most famous work and is still read by many. His third set was published in 1793, entitled Songs of Experience, and it includes many poems that have to be seen as the counterparts of those published in 1789, for example the pair The Lamb and The Tyger. The Lamb is from Songs of Innocence and The Tyger is from Songs of Experience. A lamb symbolises innocence because it is pure and white, a colour which is usually associated with heaven and God. For example the alliterative term meek and he is mild, is used this shows that the lamb is vulnerable. Within this poem there are lots of examples of pastoral imagery and repetition with L in Little Lamb shows that he is only small like a baby and has to rely on someone or something else, lamb can also be linked to Jesus the lamb of God. The l sound is a very soft sound and this is why it can be linked back to vulnerability. The Tyger in the poem Tyger represents evil and the damage that the industrial revolution was causing at the time. In the very first line of the poem it says burning bright, this represents the fire inside the belly of the industries; the effect of the harsh sounding alliteration of these two words is that it makes the reader feel very fearful at the fact that the industrialisation is becoming stronger and stronger. These two poems are different because they use different symbolisms; The Lamb poem uses symbolism linking to innocence and pastoral imagery of streams and meads in the countryside, whilst The Tyger poem uses symbolisms of a strong and scary creature that symbolises the industrial towns that crush things that get in their way, for example What the hammer? What the chain, In what furnace of thy brain? shows materials that would have been used during the industrial revolution. These two poems both have different structures as well because The Lamb has two stanzas and The Tyger has five stanzas, the effect that this has is that it makes the Tyger poem seems longer and not as connected as the Lamb poem. These two poems are similar in the way that they both seem to be asking a lot of questions, although The Lamb does not have any question marks you can still make out questions that are asked, for example Dost thou know who made thee. The Tyger asks a lot more questions and you can pick them out because they are punctuated which makes them stand out more, also a major difference is that the questions in The Lamb are answered, whereas the ones in The Tyger are not and the effect that this creates is one of doubt because you do not know what the answers are. These poems illustrate that during the time that Blake lived there was an industrial revolution and the countryside, the meek and mild lamb was being destroyed by this fearsome Tyger (the industrial revolution) I will now focus on the two poems The Chimney Sweeper one of which is from the book the Songs of Innocence and the other from the Songs of Experience. In the Songs of Innocence book the poem called The Chimney Sweeper, explores the life of a young child, a chimney sweeper and also contains pastoral imagery that is similar to those used in The Lamb for example Bright key and wash in a river and shine in the Sun which create an effect of purity and peacefulness in the world. Similarly to The Lamb, a child is used by the poet in order to establish a sense of innocence with the reader, this can be identified when the narrator says I was very young and the fact that the boy is a chimney sweeper. This effect of a child as a narrator is that it can be used as a sign of innocence. The mood and tone of the poem is then helped, which evokes sympathy from the reader and reveals how faith is restored into the child through God. The positive mood and tone of the poem is created by help from the pastoral and bright imagery. In the Chimney Sweeper religion is portrayed in a positive light and Blake shows this through the dream of a chimney sweeper. In the dream, an Angel who had a bright key, And he opend the coffins set them all free; which was Blake trying to express that new life is given to people and that if you follow Gods rules, you will be happy in your afterlife no matter how miserable your current life is. He also gives more pastoral imagery of a green plain which is less industrial and more natural. In addition, in The Chimney Sweeper religion is degraded as the narrator, who has had experience now, blames the God his Priest King for his misfortunes, as well as his parents. Darker imagery and language is now used by Blake such as little black thing among the snow to describe the children, showing how a once pure and innocent child can be turned into the opposite through experience and society. The narrator then reflects upon how harsh the times were for him as a child by revealing They clothed me in the clothes of death which means he was left for death by his parents. Religious hypocrisy was one aspect Blake was strongly against, this was the idea that the Church was trying to tell people the right thing to do, but in fact were doing the exact opposite by neglecting the children and imposing fear into people using God. The Chimney Sweeper has six quatrains but the sentences are shorter in comparison to Holy Thursday. The poem also has rhyming couplets and this continues the song-like rhythm that Blake creates in his Songs of Innocence poems. The speaker is a young boy, a chimney sweeper, and the poem is written from his point of view. By having the young boy as the speaker it allows Blake to evoke pity from the reader and allows Blake to describe how life was for a young chimney sweeper through a first-person perspective. Similarly to the two sweeper poems, there is another set of poems that carries the same tile, Holy Thursday and, thus refers to the Thursday before Easter, the day of the Last Supper of Jesus Christ with the Apostles. The Holy Thursday included in the Songs of Innocence consists of much longer lines than the other poems and could almost be described as a narrative poem. The tone and rhythm however is similar to all of those previously featured in the Songs of Innocence section like a nursery rhyme. The first stanza opens positively and cheerfully, with children attending a service, their innocent faces clean. This once again reminds us of the childrens innocence and how they can still get close to God, in particular when Blake later likens them to lambs again. However, we somehow also get an image of happy children who have made an effort to be clean for their church visit and/or whose faces are not stained yet by the loss of innocence, and the colours of their clothes, red blue green, also sound cheerful. However, the colour imagery continues and we soon realise that the children have only been dressed up for church because they are chimney sweeper groups following their Grey- headed beadles. In contrast to the children who are unlikely to even grow up, they have had the chance to grow old. The reference to the colour white in the simile with wands as white as snow is ironic. While white usually stands for innocence, we know that wands are a symbol of oppression and control, and the snow might well represent the coldness of the beadles hearts. Once again, the children are depersonalised in the simile they like Thames waters flow into the church. There are multitudes and Thousands of them, and there is no room to pay them individual attention. However, Blake also describes them as the flowers of London, perhaps ironically to remind us that we should allow children to bloom and that flowers are usually growing and beautiful, in contrast to the children who will die early. In addition, when the whole experience seems rather regimented because the children have to walk in two two and sit in companies. It almost is an image of military discipline. It is highly ironic when Blake describes the beadles as the childrens wise guardians, when any wisdom they may have gained is only used to oppress the children and their actions overall show everything but wisdom. The strength of the childrens voices is shown when Blake describes their voices as a mighty wind they raise to heaven. Metaphorically, wind can blow bad things away, and perhaps the children could change society if given the chance. They certainly seem to have the energy and drive. Blake also uses a biblical reference in the last line of the poem, Then cherish pity, lets you drive an angel from your door. This is a reference to Hebrews 13:2, Be not forgetful to entertain strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels unawares. This powerful quote implies that we must be good to our fellow man as they may have just been sent by God to test us. Thus, the innocent children should of course be treated particularly well. I will now focus finally on one of his most famous poems London from the Songs of Experience. The whole of the poem shows William Blakes view of London during the 18th Century, he describes the oppression inflicted on the civilians both by themselves and by others. Blakes attitude to society, as he describes it in his poem London, shows London to be controlled by bureaucratic laws. This is shown by the mentioning of charterd streets, charters were given to people who were richer or more powerful than most and it allowed them to control the streets of London. Blake also mentions the Thames at this point to emphasise the extremity of the control by saying the charterd Thames, obviously it is ridiculous attempt to control the river. Blake puts a large emphasis onto the depair affecting everyone by the repetition of every there is also an exaggeration of of the negative feeling by the repetition of cry. In the third stanza Blake places some of the responsibility onto the church, the church is metaphorically described as blakening to represent the guilt. There is also a juxtaposition in this line, appalls is exaggerating the blame of the church as well as meaning goes pale which is a juxtaposition with blackening. Blake also connects the chimney-sweeper with the church because they are often in need of the churchs help but are oftened turned away, this is why the blakening church also represents the smoke and soot. During this time many feared a revolution as one had occured recently in France, it is obvious that Blake also feared a revolution as he mentions the hapless soldiers blood running down the palace walls this shows he believes that if the unhappiness of the soldiers is continually ignored by those running the country a revolution is inevatable. The final stanza concentrates on marriage and new-life, both of which should bring happeness, instead Blake sees new-life as just continueing the cycle of the corruption, and he critisises the reasons for marriage, believing that many marry for convenience rather than marrying for love. Blake also critisises the youthful harlot and uses the word plaugue to suggest STDs which will be contracted and passed on. Blake uses immagery to put across his view, with the main idea being the constraint and lack of freedom for everyone within London. The poems from Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience have more meaning than the reader might first imagine due to mainly the events that were surrounding their author William Blake at the time of their writing. By the harsh reality of London at that time Blake incorporates the Chimney sweeps, Charity schools, London in general and the industrial revolution into his poems. He does not openly state what each poem is about but within in writing we can pick up on ideas and themes that influenced him to write these poems. While reading these poems people pick up on the things happening at the time due to the detail in which they are described in poetry. These poems are not just poems, they are more like Blakes autobiography on his life through the form of media he liked best, poetry.

Tuberculosis (TB) in Prisons and Immigration Removal Centres

Tuberculosis (TB) in Prisons and Immigration Removal Centres An evidence-based partnership approach to tackling Tuberculosis in Prisons and Immigration Removal Centres in London Abstract Background The World Health Organization (WHO) have declared TB as a global emergency with 8.6 million cases of active TB and 1.3 million deaths. The incidence of TB in the UK remains high compared to most other Western European countries, with 8,751 cases reported in 2012, an incidence of 13.9 per 100,000 population. London accounts for the highest proportion of cases in the UK (39%) and the highest rate of disease (41.8 cases per 100,000). Left untreated, one person with pulmonary TB may infect around 10–15 people every year. People in prison and IRCs represent a population who are at particular risk. National estimates for TB prevalence in the prison population are 208 per 100,000 and amongst Londons 10,000 or so prison population we would expect 20 cases, but we are seeing more than double. The cost of treating ‘normal’ TB is around  £5000 and is much greater for more socially complex cases (estimated at  £50,000– £70,000). There is considerable variation in the delivery of some aspects of TB services. A co-ordinated national TB strategy is required to support locally designed and implemented services, and monitor achievements against national standards. This paper presents findings from a partnership between NHS England, PHE and NOMS to tackle TB across its prison population in the overall approach to the overall TB strategy in London. Aims/objectives To establish whether national NICE guidance for TB in prisons and immigration removal centres is being met. Methods Target population included all 9 prisons and 3 IRCs for which NHS England (London region) are responsible. Methods used: 1) An organisational clinical audit during January 2014 using the NICE baseline assessment tool; 2) Stakeholder engagement through a steering group and a wider reference group. Results Effective stakeholder engagement contributed to a 100% completion rate. All establishments had referral pathways in place and a named contact within the local Multidisciplinary TB team and the local Public Health England health protection team. 2/12 establishments did not screen for TB within 48 hours of arrival. 3/12 did not have a local TB policy. 2/12 did not have a named TB lead. None of the DH funded x ray machines were being used in line with NICE recommendations. Latent TB was not being diagnosed or managed. Conclusions Active and systematic case finding is needed within a prison and IRC setting as well as more rigorous and standardised contingency and follow up care plans after release (or transfer). Introduction The World Health Organization (WHO) have declared TB as a global emergency with 8.6 million people with TB and 1.3 million deaths due to TB (World Health Organisation, 2013). The six point Stop TB Strategy (World Health Organisation, Europe, 2013b) explicitly addresses the key challenges facing TB with the goal to dramatically reduce the global burden of TB by 2015 by ensuring all TB patients benefit from universal access to high-quality diagnosis and patient-centred treatment. However, there have been challenges in developing and implementing program-wide interventions in both high income(Migliori, Sotgiu, Blasi, et al., 2011) as well as middle and low income countries(Cobelens, van Kampen, Ochodo, et al., 2012). England and Wales have responded to the need to tackle TB where the NHS and the Department of Health have developed a national Action Plan for ‘Stopping Tuberculosis in England’(Department of Health, 2004). NICE have also developed a set of National guidance fo r the identification and management of TB across a number of settings(NICE public health guidance, 2011) which highlights the need for a multi-agency approach. There has been little evidence evaluating the implementation of these guidance. What is TB? TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which spreads in airborne droplets when people with the disease cough or sneeze. Most people infected with M. tuberculosis never become ill as their immune system contains the infection. However, the bacteria remain dormant (latent) within the body, and a latent TB infection can cause active disease many years after the initial infection if immunity declines. The symptoms of TB include a persistent cough, weight loss, and night sweats. The BCG vaccine (Bacillus Calmette-Guà ©rin vaccine) protects against TB and it was thought possible to wipe out TB through a vaccination programme. The BCG vaccine is made from a weakened form of a bacterium closely related to human TB. Because the bacterium is weak, the vaccine does not cause any disease but it still triggers the immune system to protect against the disease, giving good immunity to people who receive it. In the past, the BCG vaccination programme was delivered to all teenagers in the UK but as TB is a difficult disease to catch because it requires prolonged exposure to an infected person, it was changed so that now only people inat-risk groups are given the vaccination. The vaccine is 70-80% effective against the most severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis in children but It is less effective in preventing respiratory disease, which is the more common form in adults(Trunz, Fine Dye, 2006). Even with the high coverage now achieved, BCG is unlikely to have any s ubstantial effect on transmission. Risk factors that seem to be of importance at the population level include poor living and working conditions associated with high risk of TB transmission, and factors that impair the hosts defence against TB infection and disease, such as HIV infection, malnutrition, smoking, diabetes, alcohol abuse, and indoor air pollution. Preventive interventions may target these factors directly or via their underlying social determinants. The identification of risk groups also helps to target strategies for early detection of people in need of TB treatment(Là ¶nnroth, Jaramillo, Williams, et al., 2009). How common is TB in the UK? It has been difficult to eradicate TB both globally and in the UK. Vaccination programs and improvements in housing, nutrition and access to treatment have been largely the reason for a global decrease in TB. However, TB is still rife in less developed countries where poor conditions are still present. Several strains of TB bacteria have developed a resistance to one or more anti-TB medications, making them much harder to treat. Theglobal epidemic of HIV that began in the 1980s has also led to a corresponding epidemic of TB cases. This is because HIV weakens a persons immune system, making them more likely to develop a TB infection. The rapid growth of international travel has allowed people to travel widely and this has helped to spread of the disease. Although the rates of TB have stabilised in the UK over the past seven years, following the increase in the incidence from 1990 to 2005, the incidence of TB in the UK remains high compared to most other Western European countries(Hayward, Darton, Van-Tam, et al., 2003). There were 8,751 cases reported in 2012, an incidence of 13.9 per 100,000 population (Health Protection Agency, 2013b). The majority of TB cases (73%) occurred among people born in high-incidence countries and are generally concentrated to large urban areas with a high proportion of people born outside the UK where the rate of TB among the non UK-born population is almost 20 times the rate in the UK-born (Health Protection Agency, 2013b). London accounts for the highest proportion of cases in the UK (39%) and the highest rate of disease (41.8 cases per 100,000), followed by the West Midlands (12%; 19.3 cases per 100,000). Left untreated, one person with pulmonary TB may infect around 10–15 people every year (Department of Health, 2004). TB in prisons It is important to identify settings where the risk of TB transmission is particularly high. Groups at risk not only include people born in high prevalence areas (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa, South East Asia, Eastern Europe), but also people with reduced immunity (e.g. HIV, diabetes, renal failure), those with alcohol or drug problems and people who are homeless or living in overcrowded conditions (Story, Murad, Roberts, et al., 2007). These risk factors are over represented in prison populations with high levels of social and health needs. A systematic review on the incidence of TB in prisons globally (largely in the USA), showed that TB was about 26x higher than in the general population(Baussano, Williams, Nunn, et al., 2010). In the London prison population, the incidence of TB has been estimated at about 208 per100,000 (Story, Murad, Roberts, et al., 2007). Figure 1: Incidence of TB in different locations and settings[A1] Across the London prison and IRC estate, prisons are at or very close of operational capacity (ranging from 72% 103%) and with the high churn rate which increases the risk of TB transmission and poses significant challenges for TB identification and management (see Table 1). In addition, a significant proportion of the prison population are of a foreign nationality (up to 44% in one prison) and on average, just over one quarter (27%) of the prison population are foreign nationals. The majority of the prison and IRC population are under the age of 39 years old, representing another TB risk factor. Table 1: Summary of Prison Establishments Individuals at high risk for TB are typically unwilling or unable to seek and comply with medical care, and are therefore hard to reach. Individuals at high risk are also more likely to be diagnosed at a late stage of the disease and are less likely to adhere to treatment(Health Protection Agency, 2013b). In prison and IRC settings, overcrowding, late detection, barriers to adequate treatment, and poor implementation of infection control measures might also increase the TB transmission rate and improving prison conditions is a priority for any programme to control TB and reduce its spread back into the community (Levy, Reyes Coninx, 1999). TB has been identified as a key health concern where the need for greater TB control in the prison setting was highlighted in the Chief Medical Officer’s (CMO) action plan for England (Department of Health, 2004). The Department of Health (DH) announced that they were to fund the installation of static Digital X-Ray (DXR) machines in large local prisons receiving people from areas with a high prevalence of TB. This led to the installation of DXR machines in 5 London prisons (and 3 out of London). All participating prisons had their machines signed off and handed over by March 2012 but due to changes in commissioners and providers during the lifetime of the project, the impact of the programme to date has been variable. More recently, the new national partnership agreement(Anon, n.d.) just signed between Public Health England (PHE), NHS England (NHSE) and the National Offender Management Service (NOMS) also draws particular focus and commitment to the epidemiology of TB in pris ons, particularly in those that have access to DXR machines. The agreement sets a priority for this year (2013-14) as: â€Å"Priority 11: Improving the detection and management of TB among prisoners at or near reception.† The commitment in the partnership agreement is to ensure that by April 2014, NHSE, NOMS and PHE will ensure that all fixed digital X-ray machines are fully operational and being used as part of an active care pathway in those prisons where they are currently installed. TB in IRCs Robust data relating to TB in IRCs is not routinely collected or available so there are no estimates of the incidence of TB in these settings. However, a sample of detainees in a single IRC within Southern England identified prevalence rates of 3% for TB (McLaren, Baugh, Plugge, et al., 2013) which is considerably higher than those found among the migrant population in England (Health Protection Agency, 2013b). Detainees at Harmondsworth and Colnbrook are men mostly aged 20-40 (see Table 1) and from disadvantaged areas of the world where TB is still rife. The average length of stay is around 2 weeks; although some have been detained for over 1 year. Guidance for best practice NICE have developed national guidance on the ‘Clinical diagnosis and management of tuberculosis, and measures for its prevention and control(NICE public health guidance, 2011), as well as more specific guidelines for identifying and managing TB among hard to reach groups (NICE public health guidance, 2012). This guidance, consistent with World Health Guidance(World Health Organisation, Europe, 2013a), aims to improve the way tuberculosis (TB) among hard-to-reach groups is identified and managed and makes specific reference to using prison and IRC settings to target these groups. NICE recommend that early identification and effective treatment of active TB provides the best outcomes, reduces onward transmission and reduces the development of drug-resistant forms of the disease. The identification and management of latent TB infection is also highlighted. The NICE guidance is based on the evidence resulting from four large systematic reviews(NICE, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c, 2012d) which informed the key recommendations relating to TB in prisons and IRCs. These include the best ways to identify TB, manage TB, organisational factors and identifying and managing latent TB. Identifying TB There are several approaches to identify latent and/or active TB in different populations. The Mantoux test is a widely used test for latent TB. It involves injecting a substance called PPD tuberculin into the skin and those that are sensitive to PPD tuberculin will develop a hard red bump at the site of the injection, usually within 48 to 72 hours of having the test. This is indicative of a latent TB. A very strong skin reaction may require a chest X-ray to confirm if this is an active TB infection(NHS Choices, 2013). The interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) is a newer type of blood test for TB that is becoming more widely available and can also help diagnosis latent TB. It can be used after a positive Mantoux test or as part of a screening or health check process. An active TB infection is usually diagnosed from a chest X-ray and samples of mucus and phlegm which are checked under a microscope for the presence of TB bacteria. A CT scan, MRI and/or biopsy will also be taken if an extra-pulmonary TB is suspected. A lack of information and awareness about TB services has been highlighted as a barrier to successful identification of TB (Brent Refugee Forum, 2007). Studies have highlighted that members of hard-to-reach groups frequently report incomplete or inaccurate information about the cause and transmission of TB with misconceptions included dirty or wet environment, sharing of domestic objects, and punishment from God (Brent Refugee Forum, 2007). Smoking(Brent Refugee Forum, 2007; Brewin, Jones, Kelly, et al., 2006; Gerrish, Ismail Naisby, 2010), poor diet and malnutrition(Brewin, Jones, Kelly, et al., 2006; Gerrish, Ismail Naisby, 2010), poverty (Brewin, Jones, Kelly, et al., 2006) however, were correctly perceived to affect susceptibility to TB. The fear of medical services as well as anxiety around the associations of TB with death have also been highlighted as barriers to diagnosing TB in high risk groups (Gerrish, Ismail Naisby, 2010; Marais, 2007; Brent Refugee Forum, 2007). Stigma is also highlighted as a major issue when diagnosing and screening for TB. Most studies with hard to reach groups describe a sense of shame and forced or voluntary isolation resulting from a TB diagnosis, although stigma was expressed differently in different groups. Homeless participants in London reported that being diagnosed with TB was embarrassing and rarely discussed among the homeless community because of the stigma attached to TB in this population(Whoolery, 2008). TB patients often face dual stigma—from their own communities and their wider communities. Most studies looking at the barriers to identifying TB have been conducted in immigrant groups in community settings and there is a lack of research into the barriers to identifying TB in prison or IRC populations. In addition, there are limited studies that focus on how to improve these passive case detection approaches or contact tracing approaches. With the difficulties in identifying TB in these hard to reach groups, researchers have sought to evaluate the effectiveness of active screening for TB rather than a passive approach where it is up to the individual to make contact with health services. Active screening has been found to be an effective and cost-effective strategy in immigrants and new entrants (Laifer, Widmer, Simcock, et al., 2007; Monney Zellweger, 2005; Verver, Bwire Borgdorff, 2001), homeless and intravenous drug users(Watson, Abubaker, Story, et al., 2007) in identifying active TB cases are an early stage. In particular, the â€Å"FindTreat† service, which is a Department of Health-funded initiative, aims to strengthen tuberculosis (TB) control among hard-to-reach populations through active case finding using a mobile X-ray unit (MXU)(Jit, Stagg, Aldridge, et al., 2011). In addition, the FindTreat service follows up closely those on treatment and provides support in completing treatment. Although the s ervice used to screen a large number of prisoners, it had mostly stopped since the introduction of DXR machines in prisons for active case finding in new inmates. On average, each year the find and treat service identified 16 people with TB in the hard-to-reach population, who may not have been identified and treated and also managed and supports the treatment for a further 100 or more cases. Despite these studies, there is limited direct evidence for the best methods for screening for TB in prisons(NICE, 2012b). Puisis et al conducted an innovative program of high speed radiographic screening for pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) at a large American correctional facility. The case finding rate for active disease with radiographic screening was approximately double the rate previously achieved with Mantoux skin testing. (Puisis, Feinglass, Lidow, et al., 1996). However, the findings are unclear how much of the difference in prevalence is caused by the different screening strategies and how much reflects different baseline disease prevalence. Another retrospective cohort study, compared the potential impact of limiting screening with mobile X-ray units to prisoners in the UK with symptoms of TB, compared with universal screening regardless of symptoms. Restricting screening just to prisoners with any of the five symptoms would have missed 36.7% of TB cases and more cases of TB would have been missed if screening was limited to a smaller range of symptoms. (S Yates; A Story; AC Hayward, 2009). The st udy is limited because although these symptoms may have been present at the time of screening, it is not known if professionals would have screened for TB based on these symptoms in real practice. Mobile X-ray unit (MXU) screening in those that are homeless, drug users or in prison have also been found to reduce diagnostic delay compared with passive case-detection and cases were less likely to be contagious on diagnosis compared with passive case-detection (Watson, Abubaker, Story, et al., 2007). However, the main limitation of this study is that results for different sub-populations were not reported separately, so it remains unclear whether any one hard-to-reach group benefited significantly from mobile x-ray screening. Chest X-ray screening has also been shown to be more cost-effective than the Mantoux test in immigrants and in prisoners(Jones Schaffner, 2001). However, the start-up costs of implementing the miniature chest radiograph screening were not taken into account. Cons idering the technology and training necessary to implement such a tool in a prison setting, this information could have had an effect on the costs. Active screening seems to increase identification of latent and active TB infection across hard-to-reach groups who are at high risk of infection, compared with passive case-detection, and leads to earlier diagnosis and reduced infective periods in those with active TB. Although the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of mobile X-ray screening is limited in prisons settings, NICE recommend that in prisons housing populations from high incidence areas and where the start-up costs had been largely funded by the DH, it was judged that X-ray screening would be cost effective. For other prisons, initial, symptom-based screening was adequate(NICE public health guidance, 2012). Managing and treating active TB Although TBcan be a very serious disease, it is possible to make a full recovery from most forms of TB with treatment. TB can usually be cured by taking several powerful antibiotics daily for several months. However, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains and the poor adherence to treatment has kept TB high up on the international health agenda with WHO declaring a crisis of multidrug resistant TB (World Health Organisation, 2013). The Health Protection Agency has found that only 79% of people with TB in the UK completed treatment which is below the World Health Organisation target of 85% (Health Protection Agency, 2013c). The mix of drug regimes, treatment isolation and length of time of treatment presents a number of challenges to ensure patients adhere to treatment regimes. Adherence can be particularly difficult in those with multiple needs, e.g. homeless and seeking substance abuse treatment (Whoolery, 2008). Directly Observed Therapy Short course (DOTS) is one method used to increase adherence to TB treatment. DOT is not just the direct supervision of therapy but also considers distinct elements of political commitment; microscopy services; drug supplies; surveillance and monitoring systems and use of highly efficacious regimens (World Health Organisation, Europe, 2013b). It can be difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of DOTS as a complete strategy to increase adherence and the focus of studies have evaluated the direct supervision of therapy. For example, significantly more people adhered to more than six months of treatment when they received DOT in substance misuse(Alwood, Keruly, Moore-Rice, et al., 1994) and in foreign born individuals (MacIntyre, Goebel, Brown, et al., 2003). However, there have been limited studies into prison populations with some suggestions of improved adherence with DOT(Rodrigo, Caylà  , Garcà ­a de Olalla, et al., 2002) and other findings showing no sign ificant differences (Dà ¨ruaz Zellweger, 2004). The effectiveness of DOT across prison and IRC populations still remains unclear. The views of treatment and management of TB can be particularly important when considering adherence. For example, the views on traditional and modern medicine can also vary between different groups which can impact the management of TB. The Brent Refugees Forum reported that Somalis in the UK reported a preference to try traditional medicine as a first choice (Brent Refugee Forum, 2007) whereas Somalis in New Zealand would prefer modern medicine first in response to their experiences of TB related deaths in their home country(van der Oest, Chenhall, Hood, et al., 2005). Some groups preferred approaches to treatment that included both traditional and modern medicines(NICE, 2012a). Talking to the patient to find out their preferences can help patients to make decisions about their treatment based on an understanding of the likely benefits and risks rather than on misconceptions (Nunes V, Neilson J, O’Flynn N, Calvert, N, Kuntze S, Smit, hson H, Benson J,, et al., 2009). Very li ttle is known of the impact of TB treatment on jobs, family and children (NICE, 2012a) and in particular, the psychological impact of isolation. TB treatment should be provided on a voluntary basis and the WHO highlight the importance of â€Å"engaging with patients as partners in the treatment process and respecting their autonomy and privacy† (World Health Organisation, 2013). This can be a particularly important issue when concerned with isolating an individual with a suspected or confirmed case of TB, which should be undertaken on a voluntary basis and involuntary isolation should only be used as a last resort. Few studies have explored the potential benefits that patients may experience when seeking TB treatment. A small number of homeless participants reported that TB treatment helped make further lifestyle changes that improved their health in general. For example, improved living conditions and regaining relationships with family (Whoolery, 2008). Another study reported that immigrants reported a ‘social responsibility’ to seek TB treatment although this was anxiety provoking (Brewin, Jones, Kelly, et al., 2006). Evidence suggests that discussing with the patient why they might benefit from the treatment can improve patient engagement and adherence(Nunes V, Neilson J, O’Flynn N, Calvert, N, Kuntze S, Smit, hson H, Benson J,, et al., 2009). Organisational factors Delays in identifying and successfully managing TB can be the result of individual and service provider factors. The provisions used to deliver care and support can determine how services should be structured to manage people with TB in hard-to-reach groups. These organisational factors can include the settings used to identify and manage TB as well as the type and needs of the healthcare worker. A lack of specialist services and coordination of care can be a major difficulty in TB service provision, since most GPs see few cases of TB a year (Belling, McLaren, Boudioni, et al., 2012; Gerrish, Ismail Naisby, 2010). The complex social and clinical interactions surrounding a patient with TB can be a challenge to participation and adherence and there is a need for TB link workers to facilitate coordination of services (Brent Refugee Forum, 2007; Belling, McLaren, Boudioni, et al., 2012). Healthcare workers may find it challenging to meet the complex care needs of hard-to-reach groups with TB, especially where there are cultural and language barriers that make it difficult to interpret symptoms and explain about the disease and its treatment (Moro, Resi, Lelli, et al., 2005). In addition, service providers can also be afraid of the consequences of contracting TB, including becoming stigmatised. Non clinical healthcare workers may also have limited knowledge about TB, the need for screening and the implications of a positive test result (Joseph, Shrestha-Kuwahara, Lowry, et al., 2004). There is considerable variation in the delivery of some aspects of TB services and more research is needed in the UK on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different service structures to manage TB(NICE, 2012d). In addition to the NICE national guidance, Public Health England have produced London specific guidelines on the management of TB in prisons (Health Protection Agency, 2013a) based on pilot work across a number of London prisons. This guidance aims to minimise the risk of transmission of TB within the prison environment through efficient systems to detect ca

Reducing Communication and Processing Overhead

Reducing Communication and Processing Overhead RACE: Reducing Communication And Processing Overhead And Ensuring Security Milu Sayed Liyamol Aliyar Abstract— RACE, Report based payment scheme for multi-hop wireless network. Race is a secure incentive protocol which used for the multi-hop wireless network, helps packet transmission and enforce fairness. The protocol uses the concept of evidences and the regularity of the nodes. The trusted party evaluates the nodes competence and reliability. The payment method recompenses nodes that impart packets and toll the send incentives and are present in the reports. It submits the light weight payment reports to trusted party for update the credit incentives. AC(accounting center) verifies the regularity of the reports. For fair reports it has less processing overhead and for cheating reports it find the cheating nodes and evicts it. RACE finds the cheating nodes by requesting evidences.For reducing the overhead, the evidence aggregation technique is used. The evaluation of performance and analysis of security demonstrates it has less overhead and less payment clearance delay. Extensive evaluation of RACE provides that it’s robust against the unauthorized access. Extensive study for restraining fraudulent is in progress. Keywords—Incentive, payment, RACE, Accounting center Introduction (Heading 1) INTRODUCTION Now-a-days the multi-hop wireless n/w application is tremendously increased. The more technology advances the more vastness of the subject increases. Multi-hop wireless n/w there are number of hop exits from origin to destination. To reduce the flooding attacks. The nodes in cooperates in imparting information from one node to another. The nodes can be malicious or selfish. In multi-hop wireless networks (MWNs), the traffic originated from a node is usually relayed through the other nodes to the destination for enabling new applications and enhancing the network performance and deployment. MWNs can be deployed readily at low cost in developing and rural areas. Multi-hop packet relay can extend the network coverage using limited transmit power, improve area spectral efficiency, and enhance the network throughput and capacity. MWNs can also implement many useful applications such as data sharing and multimedia data transmission. For example, users in one area (residential neighborhood, university campus, etc.) having different wireless- enabled devices, e.g., PDAs, laptops, tablets, cell phones, etc., can establish a network to communicate, distribute files, and share information.[1] Now-a-days the interest in multi-hop wireless networks is increasing MWNs and can be deployed readily at low cost in developing and rural areas. Multi-hop packet relay can extend the network coverage using limited transmit power, improve area spectral efficiency, and enhance the network throughput and capacity. A good payment scheme should be secure, and require low overhead. However, the existing receipt-based payment schemes impose significant processing and communication overhead and implementation complexity. The incentive schemes can be divides into two and are reputation and credit based system. Reputation based scheme Reputation schemes mainly depend on sending information from one node to the neighboring nodes and keep a track of these nodes so that can eventually helps to find the node which is corrupted or malicious. In reputation based the selfish nodes are punished. Credit based scheme Here a node relying the packets from one to other is service. In this unlike reputed scheme, the nodes are not punished when they do not cooperate. It prompts nodes to collaborate with the other nodes for transaction Multi-hop Wireless Networks Mainly develop a suite of efficient security mechanisms and protocols for mobile ad-hoc and multi-hop cellular networks. Specifically, we focus on thwarting packet-dropping and selfishness attacks, privacy preserving for user , and creating more determined routes to reduce the breaking of the routes , thus boosting the network performance in terms of end -to- end packet delay, packet delivery ratio, throughput, etc.[10] Efficient and Secure Credit-Based Incentive Mechanism We develop a fair efficient secure credit-based incentive mechanism that uses credits (or micropayment) to charge the nodes that impart the packets, and to toll those relaying packets. In this network origin to destination transfer of the node is shown. Here from origin to destination the node forms a path and the form a hop .Thus for moving from origin to destination there creates a number of hops .for multi-hop network there are number of hops from origin to destination. cellular networks. Specifically, we focus on thwarting packet-dropping and selfishness attacks, privacy preserving for user , and creating more determined routes to reduce the breaking of the routes , thus boosting the network performance in terms of end -to- end packet delay, packet delivery ratio, throughput, etc. We develop a fair efficient secure credit-based incentive mechanism that uses credits (or micropayment) to charge the nodes that impart the packets, and to toll those relaying packets. In this network origin to destination transfer of the node is shown. Here from origin to destination the node forms a path and the form a hop .Thus for moving from origin to destination there creates a number of hops .for multi-hop network there are number of hops from origin to destination. MICROPAYMENT Micropayment is a online and e commerce payment for transferring money from one system to one another node .A micropayment is a incentive transaction involving sum of money and usually one that occurs online. PayPal defines a micropayment as a transaction of less than 12 USD Applications Mesh networks may involve either fixed or mobile devices. The solutions are as diverse as communication needs, for example in difficult environments such as emergency situations, tunnels, oil rigs, battlefield surveillance, high speed mobile video applications on board public transport or real time racing car telemetry. An important possible application for wireless mesh networks is VoIP. By using a Quality of Service scheme, the wireless mesh may support local telephone calls to be routed through the mesh. Some current applications: U.S. military forces are now using wireless mesh networking to connect their computers, mainly ruggedized laptops, in field operations. Electric meters now being deployed on residences transfer their readings from one to another and eventually to the central office for billing without the need for human meter readers or the need to connect the meters with cables. The laptops in the One Laptop per Child program use wireless mesh networking to enable students to exchange files and get on the Internet even though they lack wired or cell phone or other physical connections in their area. The 66-satellite Iridium constellation operates as a mesh network, with wireless links between adjacent satellites. Calls between two satellite phones are routed through the mesh, from one satellite to another across the constellation, without having to go through an earth station. This makes for a smaller travel distance for the signal, reducing latency, and also allows for the constellation to operate with far fewer earth stations that would be required for 66 traditional communications satellite II SYSTEM DESIGN Contribution: is the first to verify the payment by investigating the consistency of the nodes’ reports without: Systematically relenting Processing security tokens imprecise allegation Proposed System Security was emphasized both for merchants and customers. Server has end to end transaction. It does not handle with public key only with the private key and message digest. Mutual authentication between users is for security purposes. Valid signature gives a recipient reason to believe that the message was created by non sender. Message digest the representation of the text in the form of single string of digit created using a formula. The comparison factors between the other existing system are symmetric key ,falcified data, duplicated data Race mechanism In the scheme it supports the concepts of reports and evidences. In the reports its of format R={R,F,X} where it gives sessions ids and flag bits and the number of packets sent through the medium. The evidences include E={R, X, Ts, H (MX), h (0), h(X), H (SigS(R, X, Ts,H(MX)), SigD(R, Ts, h(0)))}In race mechanism the portable node will send the the data to the other [10].Each node keeps information about the details of it with it temporarily. When the trusted party asks for the evidences the nodes will sent the evidences. The different phases of the architecture do different duties such as classifier classify the nodes with fair and cheating reports .the cheating reports testified and evicted from the node base on different rules. The evicted nodes are evicted from the network. While cheating occurs the trusted party asks for the evidences and the node will submit the evidences and these evidences are verified .if verified evidences are falcified data the node cannot be able sent the data to the data. III IMPLEMENTATION In the proposed system the system consists of different phases such as Communication phase Classifier phase Identifying cheaters phase Credit update In communication phase it divides into different modules such as rout establishment, data transmission evidence composition, payment report composition/submission Communication phase Communication phase is divides into different sections as shown in below. In this phase communication from one phase to other takes place. In this it temporarily stores the evidences and the reports in this phase. In communication phase it end to end communication. It uses DSR algorithm to transfer the information from one to another. It first sends the route request message (RREQ) and then its session ID’s such as origin and destination. It then send the route reply message send from the destination node. Here it contains the TTL value where TTL is the maximum number of intermediate nodes in the network. When we sent the data from one node to the intermediate node then the TTL value gets decreased. Here a hash chain root is created to send the information from origin to destination. The hash chain authenticated with the signature helps to route the data. Here the evidences are present where the evidences are unmodifiable and undeniable. Network Model Route establishment Data transmission Evidence composition Payment report composition Network Model Route establishment: The mobile nodes are probable assailant but the TP is fully solid. The mobile nodes are autonomous and self-interested and thus motivated to misbehave. The TP is run by an operator that is prompt to make certain the network proper operation. In order to establish an end-to-end route, the origin node broadcasts the Route Request(RREQ) packet containing the identities of the origin (IDS) and the destination (IDD) nodes, time stamp (Ts), and Time-To-Live (TTL). The destination node devises the Route Reply (RREP) packet for the nodes beam the first received RREQ packet, and sends the packet back to the origin node. Data transmission: The origin node sends data packets to the destination node through the established route and the destination node replies with ACK packets. For the Xth data packet, the origin node appends the message MX and its signature to R, X, Ts, and the hash value of the message and sends the packet to the first node in the route. The security tokens of the Xth data and ACK packets are illustrated. The origin node’s signature is an undeniable proof for relying X messages and ensures the message’s authenticity and rectitude. Evidence composition: Evidence is defined as information that is used to establish proof about the eventuality of an event or action, the time of eventuality, the parties involved in the incident, and the outcome of the incident. The impetus of Evidence is to resolve a dispute about the amount of the payment resulted from data transmission. Payment report composition/submission: A payment report is updated by the Trusted Party. After the Trusted Party verification any transaction is updated. By using the Certificate, Public Key, Symmetric Key, the transaction is approved. If the transaction is faulty or fraud, then the Trusted Party verifies it and the transaction is cancelled. The transaction amount will not be updated in the receiver account. Classifier In classifier the nodes consistency is determined. The fair reports and the cheating reports are investigated. Here in cheating reports it will steal the credits . The fair reports are rather complete or broken sessions. Identifying cheaters : In this phase the cheaters are identified using some rules. Our main objective of secured payment is identifying the ones who steals the credit and one who pays less. So for this the TP determines the evidences and the evidences are verified. The evidences consists PROOF where by investigating the proof we can find the cheaters. PROOF is composed by the onion hashing technique. Cheating nodes are evicted from the network. Update credits In this phase credits are updated to the account. The fair reports update in the account. Hera the public/private key pair is use for the communication and the symmetric key is used for the submission of the fair reports. After identifying the duplicated and falcified data from the network they are evicted from the network. Here when first cheating action occurs the cheating node is investigated . In my area of research the identified node is evicted from the network so that they to register again to the trusted party as well as each node is provided with trusted value ie, the node with high trust value helps to transfer the data such as the path in which the data passed is of high trust value it considered as valid path IV CONCLUSION It is of 24 bytes length. Small size reports (≈ 24 bytes).Fair reports are clear with almost no cryptographic operations or processing overhead. It reduce communication and processing overheads significantly. It effective implementation due to little storage required. In this secure values are given t each nodes is considered as future work V REFERENCES [1] Mahmoud And Shen: A Secure Payment Scheme With Low Communication And Processing Overhead For Multihop wireless networks., IEEE Transactions On Parallel And Distributed Systems, Vol. 24,No. 2, pp. 209-224, February 2013. [2] G. Shen, J. Liu, D. Wang, J. Wang, and S. Jin, â€Å"Multi-Hop Relay for Next-Generation Wireless Access Networks,† Bell Labs Technical J., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 175-193, 2009. [3] C. Chou, D. Wei, C. Kuo, and K. Naik, â€Å"An Efficient Anonymous Communication Protocol for Peer-to-Peer Applications Over Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks,† IEEE J. Selected Areas in Comm., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 192-203, Jan. 2007. [4] H. Gharavi, â€Å"Multichannel Mobile Ad Hoc Links for Multimedia Communications,† Proc. IEEE, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 77-96, Jan. 2008. [5] S. Marti, T. Giuli, K. Lai, and M. Baker, â€Å"Mitigating Routing Misbehavior in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,† Proc. MobiCom à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸00, pp. 255-265, Aug. 2000. [6] G. Marias, P. Georgiadis, D. Flitzanis, and K. Mandalas, â€Å"Cooperation Enforcement Schemes for MANETs: A Survey,† Wileyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s J. Wireless Comm. and Mobile Computing, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 319-332, 2006. [7] Y. Zhang and Y. Fang, â€Å"A Secure Authentication and Billing Architecture for Wireless Mesh Networks,† ACM Wireless Networks, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 663-678, Oct. 2007. [8] L. Buttyan and J. Hubaux, â€Å"Stimulating Cooperation in Self-Organizing Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,† Mobile Networks and Applications, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 579-592, Oct. 2004. [9] Y. Zhang, W. Lou, and Y. Fang, â€Å"A Secure Incentive Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,† ACM Wireless Networks, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 569-582, Oct. 2007. [10] P.Visalakshi1, R. Dineshbabu2 and K. Vijayalakshmi3 1,2SRM University, MCA Department, Kattankulathur, Kanchipuram, India 3St. Peter’s University, Department of Computer Science Engineering, Avadi, Chennai, India